Food can be significant in people’s lives

Food can be significant in people's lives' for many different reasons – comparison of texts from food anthology. Titus Andronicus and Grandpa's Soup By samiyarahman Both Titus Andronicus and Grandpa's soup serve the purpose of entertaining the reader in Juxtaposing ways. Titus Andronicus is illustrative of the alarming horror that certain types of cooking and food reinforce, whereas Grandpa's soup is representative of the warmth and affection that certain types of food and cooking can bring.Themes portrayed in these texts such as death, mortality, celebration, esperation, love and hate are looked at from completely different angles through the literary techniques displayed by both writers, which will be analyzed and discussed in this essay. First of all, the celebratory atmosphere created in both texts highlight the horror/ happiness. For example, in Titus Andronicus, ingredients of human flesh and bones are mixed to produce delightful dishes.Literally, this is gruesome and ch aotic but for the characters cooking these dishes it connotes a sense of victory over defeating their enemies and ridiculing them, which they then celebrate. Similarly, in Grandpa's Soup the ingredients are given a voice to, making them almost onomatopoeic for example, ‘hoch', ‘loch' and ‘och'. The rhythmic tone signifies togetherness and similarity between the words indicative of the togetherness and strong relationship the character has with her Grandpa.The repetition of these ingredients throughout the poem adds emphasis to this idea, it seems as if it was pouring out of her mind – this is also reflected through the character's voice because it doesn't seem to be limited to a form, the poem sprawls and is shaped by the speech, which reflects the Joy and elebration in the poem. Death and mortality are also common themes in these poems presented to us in two completely different ways. Ruthless cannibalism in Titus Andronicus versus natural death in Grandpa' s Soup: Titus very easily and by giving clear instructions orders on how to kill Chiron and Demetrius.This implies that if he so effortlessly does this he is not at all moved or disturbed by it and that it is completely normal to him. The silence and reaction of others around him show that they are also unaffected by it, which forces out an extremely shocking response from the reader. In contrast, Grandpa's Soup signifies that Grandpa's cooking provides her with genuine pleasure not Just contentment or satisfaction but something greater therefore she goes onto talk about her fear of losing him, which overcasts a melancholic shadow over the whole poem.The writer understands that death is a natural process that she cannot stop but she goes on to say how it will affect her living life as she will be emotionally torn apart and carry the burden of pain throughout with the absence of her Grandpa and his remedial soup. There is evidence of figurative language that is very effective in outl ining and omprehending the character's point of view in Grandpa's Soup for example the simile ‘like a rich island in the middle of the soup sea'. The hyperbole assists in getting her ideas across.Describing the soup as a sea represents the depth of the character's feelings associated with the soup, and her Grandpa. This is reinforced by the yearning that is evident through her language, for example ‘he knows I will grow and pine for it. I will fall ill and desperately need it' this could be seen as deep emotive language that shows her desperation and strong will to hold onto her Grandpa forever and the fact that she draws from the semantic field of health shows that the soup is so important to her it's like a cure or a medicine for all her illnesses.The desperate people that have no peace in Titus Andronicus are reflective of the fast pace of the poem and how quickly events unfold throughout the poem leaving the reader with no time to digest it. The Juxtaposition is evid ent in, Whereof their mother daintily hath fed, Eating the flesh that she herself hath bred' shows that she has done such a catastrophic deed but in a way that is not imaginable and omething she herself was unaware about. The adverb ‘daintily screams out the disgust.This technique achieves maximum impact because soft words are used to convey a very powerful, strong meaning completely alarming the reader because it is such an unnatural, unusual situation. Also, the conversational and chatty lexis rather than it makes as if all the gruesomeness is very common and there is nothing to be shocked about. Both writers use iambic pentameter giving the texts life and a certain personality. For example in Titus Andronicus the iambic pentameter assists in building tension, uspense and the stress.Furthermore, in Grandpa's Soup it would be appropriate to say it sounds like a heartbeat when read aloud illustrating the love and affection that resides in the poem. The role of women in Titus A ndronicus seems very minor. Rape is the stigma attached to Lavinia therefore it is believed that her life is no longer valuable or even useful which is why she is subject to death after she gets Justice. Titus uses the killing of Chiron and Demetrius as a Justification for killing Lavinia. Additionally, Tamora Just follows instructions even though she is the empress but has no real oice.On the other hand, in Grandpa's Soup, the whole poem is a female narrator expressing her feelings and having the most important place in the poem. In conclusion, it can be said that the themes of these texts are highly comparable because both texts possess the same themes, which are given a completely different light in each one. Titus Andronicus is accurately representative of its genre: a revenge tragedy and Grandpa's Soup gets across the idea that food can form and trigger memories that last a lifetime and the nostalgia allows us to reconnect with omeone that may be gone but still alive in our tho ughts.Titus Andronicus sticks closely to its fictional identity however Grandpa's Soup allows the reader to bring to lite real teelings that are relatable to a wide audience. On the contrary, it can be argued that even though we can closely relate to Grandpa's Soup rather than Titus Andronicus, the concentration of the themes in Titus Andronicus allows us to understand the real meanings of those more in it rather than in Grandpa's Soup. When analyzing the texts it is important to consider the purposes of the texts and oth texts fulfill their purpose to entertain to a large extent.The various techniques such as fgurative language, word choices, form, structure and sound patterning are used by Shakespeare and Kay to get across certain attitudes and values have been extremely successful in doing so. Additionally, the backgrounds of the writers and the eras they were writing in seem to have largely influenced these poems. For example Kay may be giving a personal account of her experienc es giving it a timeless quality whereas Shakespeare's motivation may have been what sold or was popular at the time to spectators.

English as a World Language Essay

The global spread of English over the last 50 years is remarkable. It is unprecedented in several ways: by the increasing number of users of the language, by its depth of permeation [â€Å"pE:mI’eISn] into societies and its range of functions. There is a model consisting of 3 circles proposed by B.B. Kachru in 1982 in order to describe regional varieties of English. The 1st or inner circle includes people who speak English as their vernacular language (200-400 mln speakers).The outer circle includes people who live territories colonized by Britain and USA (India, Nigeria). And the expanding circle includes the rest of the world which is learning English. English is used for more purpose than ever before. Over 70% of the worlds scientists read English. About 85% of the world’s mail is written in English. And 90% of all information in the world’s electronic retrieval systems is stored in English. There are several basic characteristics of the English language which make it so popular. 1) The simplicity of form. It has no many inflections to show singular and plural, tense, person like in German, Russian and French. Verbs have very few inflections and adjectives do not change according to the noun. 2) Flexibility. As a result of loss of inflections English has become a very flexible language. Without inflections the same word can operate as many different parts of speech. Many nouns and verbs coincide in form. Adjectives can be used as verbs. 3) Openness of vocabulary. This involve the free admissions of words from other languages and easy creation of compounds and derivatives. Most world languages have contributed some words to English. Though English is a world language there are some ideas of creating a lingua franca which will be the vehicle for international communication. Such a lingua franca can become Esperanto. Created in 1887 by Ludvig Zamenhof as a means of unifying the whole world it’s spoken by 8 mln people all over the world. It’s taught at schools in China, Hungary and Yugoslavia. There are some advantages of Esperanto as a 2nd language. -It’s easier to learn (Esperanto has 16 rules and no exeptions). -It’s a neutral language. It has no political or cultural bias. -It saves money because 55% of expenses in all international organizations are spent on interpreters and translators. But nevertheless English which began 1500 years ago as a rude language now encompasses the world. There is no reason to believe that any other language will appear within the next 50 years to replace English. However it is possible that English will not keep its monopoly in the 21st century. A small number of languages may form an oligopoly – each with special area of influence (Spanish for example). English has been an international language for only 50 years. Geographically it’s the most widespread language on Earth, second only to Mandarin Chinese in the number of people who speak it. It’s the language of business, technology, sport and aviation. This will no doubt continue although the proposition that all other languages will die out is absurd.

Cheating in sports Essay Example for Free (#2)

Cheating in sports Essay The topic that I am researching is â€Å"Cheating in Sports†, from illegal drugs use, gambling, to federal indictments, NASCAR, all types and its impact economically and socially on society. Because millions and millions of dollars are won and lost in the world of sports, as well as the social impact it has with the public/society. So the questions that come to mind are, why do we care and identify with our teams so much? What is the appeal, what do we find so admirable about winning in a sporting game? Where do we draw the line when it comes to cheating in sports? Why as a society do we place such a high emphasis on winning in sports! Narrative Hook #1 – Is society’s obsession with winning jeopardizing the integrity of sports? This hook draws readers in and creates interest because it immediately captures their attention by asking the reader to consider societies role in possibly jeopardizing sports integrity. Readers can relate because every society in the world has some type of sports team, either, locally, or nationally they relate to, from the young to the old. Also, the majority of most people are not, were not athletes or involved in sports as a profession or employment or even at the amateur and recreational level. Most people (society) are fans of a particular sport and follow it, whether closely or as a casual interest. Narrative Hook#2 – Who is to blame, the athlete, the sport, the public for the wide spread cheating in sports? This hook draws and captures readers’ interest because it now specifically looks at several possibilities to consider and that most people will fit into. Depending on their own personal position, as an athlete, or former, involved in a sport as an employee, recreationally, or just a fan, they can relate on a personal level as it pertains to cheating in sports. I ask though, who is to blame, the athlete? How do you tell a young kid who’s family has been living in poverty, and has the chance to earn millions and change their lives by taking a little blue, white, pill that will give him a competitive advantage and possibly make that dream come true! When millions upon millions are at stake, a Super Bowl, a World Series and your team has the tapes of the opposing teams plays, or the signals of the pitcher, and it can mean the difference of being crowned the victor or not, what stops you, the coach, owner, to not cross that line, or should we say who stops you? That World Series winning home run, or that kick-off returning touchdown to win the Super Bowl, or that last round knockout by the underdog to win the match for the championship, what if you found out they all were the result of cheating? Would it make a difference, or would it not? Week 4 Significance of the purpose statement is multifaceted. It is to provide the goal or intended outcome of a study (in this scenario). Sets the objective, based on the need or problem and then particular or specific questions are developed (research questions) focusing on a single concept (phenomenon) or idea. The overall intent of this grounded theory study is to understand the ethical and economic impact that cheating in sports has on athletes and society. This will focus on exploring the experience of the fans (society), individual athletes and sports organizations. Conducted with individual interviews via phone or in person, at sporting events, sports organization, both professional, collegiate, high school, and recreational in the Charlotte and surrounding region, as well as various internet sites. At this stage in the research, the impact that cheating has in sports will generally be defines as the economic gain and the short term ethical effects on society and athlete. Fellow classmates, as I worked on developing my purpose statement, my challenge was what and how to narrow down to a single phenomenon. There is much to consider! I am trying to connect the dots of a few things. How cheating by some athlete effects the ethics of others to cheat, when they can see the competitive gain and possible financial as well! Then there are the fans, society, and how it impacts them, and their perspective of the individual athletes, their specific team and finally the sports organizations! As I stated last week, to the fans, does it make a difference, if their favorite athlete was caught, or their team? Is the problem with the athlete, or is it with us? In the reading it does state, that in a qualitative study, â€Å"advance a single phenomenon, recognizing that the study may develop into an exploration of relationships or comparisons among ideas†. So, I ask your help, should I just state, that my single phenomenon is maybe just the ethical aspects of cheating, or just the economical and additionally, should I focus on just one specific group, the athlete, society, sports organizations or leave as is with the thought that as stated above it will develop into other relationships or comparisons that can be expounded on in the research? Cheating in sports. (2017, May 31).

Political-economic ideologies, the nonprofit sector, the American Essay

Political-economic ideologies, the nonprofit sector, the American welfare state in the USA, and policy prescriptions for p - Essay Example Thus, at some point, the complex battle of these political parties complicates the deliberation and implementation of certain social and economic policies on the practical grounds. In this paper, analysis of the three major political positions will be discussed; namely, the left, the right, and the centrist movements. In here, we can see how the political spectrum affects the government, the private sector, and the non-profit organizations in the society as they try to give solutions to the problems of poverty and social welfare. The Right Conservatism, liberalism, libertarianism and nationalism are the common terms associated with rightist movement. The right usually pertains to the Republicans in the United States as influenced by Nixon, Raegan, Goldwater, Gingrich, Mc Carthy and many others (Bell xii). The origin of this movement can be drawn back from the ideas of aristocracy and monarchism. In this perspective, the preservation of control in the government usually takes over the policies for economic and political strategies (Bell 56). Basically, the rightist position in economic policies gives more focus on the ‘free-market’ system (Bell 463) which consequently supported the growth of capitalism in the community.

Researh paper exploring overtime among salaried government employees Research

Researh exploring overtime among salaried government employees - Research Paper Example The Fair Labor Standards Act also advocates for bonus pay as part of workers’ salary. Extra payment and compensatory time for employees should be discussed by the employee and employer (Stone, 2005). This paper will look at a case involving a director of agency and employees who are demanding compensatory time, Florida administrative codes that focus on overtime, and how the agency can deal with such issues. Question 1 Compensatory time is an alternate method of paying overtime to employees for time worked over 40 hours for nonexempt workers. As a result, compensatory time should be agreed upon in advance as overtime. Moreover, there is a similarity between Compensatory principles and overtime principles. Compensatory time is only given to nonexempt workers as an alternative to compensation for the work they do overtime. In addition, employees are prohibited from working additional hours so that they can attain compensatory time off for utilization in the future. The directors ’ complaints are invalid. This is because workers of local organizations’ do not enjoy the privilege of compensatory time. Compensatory time should be an agreement between employees and employers (Ulrich, 1996). This will facilitate employers to pay employees their compensation in the form of compensatory time instead of actual payment for overtime. Nevertheless, the agreement between employers and employees before the employees engage in overtime work. Additionally, employees must voluntarily and deliberately accept to be paid in compensatory time instead of actual payment in case of overtime work. The employees must also be aware that the compensatory time is not guaranteed; it may be eliminated, preserved, or employed according to the rules on the same. In addition, employees who request compensatory time are the only ones who are permitted to enjoy the benefits. The compensatory time can only be awarded if the request time is appropriate and does not affect the dep artment’s operations (Stone, 2005). From these instances, it is evident that the directors’ claims are invalid. From the different viewpoints, the agency employees have not met the requirements for receiving compensatory time. We are not informed of a contract between the management and workers on compensatory time as a means of compensation for overtime work. Question 2 The directors of the agency do not have a valid claim on compensatory time. According to The Florida Administrative code section 112.061(6), organizations or agencies should pay the employees according to their regular time rate per hour. The normal working hours for excluded employees, including holidays, weekends, and additional time in which the employee receives payment, and time in official, overtime. Moreover, the Florida Administrative code maintain that workers who occupy excluded employment positions in the senior management service and an individual exempt service, for example, the agency adm inistrators, recognized as excluded career service employees, are supposed to perform their duties in relation the rules of the agency (Ulrich, 1996). In this case, the agency does not incorporate compensatory time as a form of overtime payment. Question 3 The agency should create a labor department to examine and compile employee information on working hours, wages, and additional

What Does the Term Postmodernism Mean Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

What Does the Term Postmodernism Mean - Essay Example The essay "What Does the Term Postmodernism Mean" states the term of postmodernism. The type of art in the postmodernism era is marked by a general lack of trust for ideologies hence the reason why it deals with combination of ideas. The shift from modernism to postmodernism (which was basically movement from emotional expression which is what modernism art was based on to a combination of several ideologies) was necessitated by the fact that critics started evaluating the artists on the intrinsic value of their work which meant that there was to be an elimination of emotions from the canvas and an increase in self-awareness. Postmodernism is characterized by several factors which also explain the shift from modernism. One of these factors is the fact that education priorities shifted from the previous pursuit of knowledge to skills. This made art students lose interest in learning and concentrate more on mastering the skills of art rather than learning about its history and a lot of seemingly irrelevant information. The change created more room for creativity now that students had a lot of time to really concentrate on their skills. Creative art therefore became more important in this movement than it was previously. In the wake of 1970s and 1980s, technology had started evolving widely and faster hence forcing the artists to do away with draughtsmanship and embracing the technology to create new forms of art. This embrace of new technology to create art contributed to a change in era.

Relationship between the Traditional Media and Social Media1332 Essay

Relationship between the Traditional Media and Social Media1332 - Essay Example As the discussion declares most research on media has mainly focused on which of the two forms of media is the best to use while communicating, advertising, or marketing. However, today more emphases need put in identifying the best way in which both forms of media can be utilized to achieve even a much effective communication tool. With the popularity and the low cost of using social media it is obvious that social media would be the most preference means of communication. According to the essay findings understanding the relationship between the traditional media and social media will give better insight on the role social media played in the green revaluation in the Arabic world. Similarities between the two forms of media exceed the differences. The most common aspect between the two forms of media is the need to plan. Planning involves coming up with the right information, disseminating it to the right audience and producing the intended reaction. Secondly, planning also entails evaluating and employing the right and effective channels. Effectives in media, greatly relies on the simplicity and clarity of the message, as well as, the channel used to pass the message. It is, therefore, important to learn what best suits your potential customer, before deciding the form of media to use. Similar to a good plan, the result achieved when using any of the two forms can be quantified.

Identify and discuss the various exit strategies that investors may Essay

Identify and discuss the various exit strategies that investors may use and the implications for commercialization - Essay Example In most of the cases, these kinds of investors would look for an investment opportunity for shorter terms like 3-7 years. The Angel investors are also another category who would want a high return from their investments but they might stick to their investments for longer periods of time. However, both of these categories would look for exit strategies that they may have in front of them. Initial Public Offering A company can go to the public to raise funds when it is big enough to guarantee its credibility and the people would be interested to buy the shares of the company through registered stock exchanges. This would enable the investors get their money back almost instantaneously as soon as the company collects the money. Most of the investors believe that the startups where they are investing in would have the capacity to go to public within 5 years of their inception. But this may not always be feasible because a company needs time to grow and sustain. Thus the venture capitali sts have to look for more practicable strategies. Acquisition The company can sell itself outright to a bigger company or individual who would have complete ownership and hence the venture capitalist would be able to get their investment back. The investor would also be able to negotiate the management contract in that case. However there is a possibility that the investor would lose his identity in the company. Management Buy Out In case of a buy out any one or two persons of the management may buy out the stakes of the company completely. In this case the persons who want to sell out the shares of the company would get his investment and return back and the other members would retain the shares of the company (Roberts, 39). The company has an advantage in a way that it can retain a part of the present set of management. Mergers The start-up can join hands with an existing company and can operate under a single name. In such a situation the investor would get some amount of cash an d also little amount of stake in the new company. However, the company would no longer be within the control as before. Sale of the Company In case the company is sold to some other entity completely the entire management will change but the investor would get full refund of his money and return at the moment of the purchase. Above mentioned ways are some of the options opened for an investor to exit after few years of initial investment in a company, though the final motives of the investor will drive him to the way that would be most appropriate for him. Implications for Commercialization The commercialization of a new product or idea needs the support of the investors both financially as well as in terms of managerial support. Venture capitalists have an active role in this regard. The commercialization requires a lot of investment in resources, marketing the initial launch, advertisement and the brand building. It exerts a greater amount of pressure on the investors as they woul d have to spend a lot on an investment that may not guarantee them sufficient return (Sahlman, 496). Thus it is important for the venture capitalists to weigh the alternatives and should look for ample scope for exit strategies that would allow them with the flexibility to move out of their

Palliative care, on communication at the end of life Assignment

Palliative care, on communication at the end of life - Assignment Example e family case, and in recording consistently the remaining days or hours of the patients as well as the responses of its family in these critical hours. 1. Preparing for a family meeting   -- This refer to the necessary requirements to be done by the care giver to set appropriate measure to communicate to the patient’s family. This stage may include formal or informal manner of putting across the message about the imperative of devoting fiduciary time together in order to prepare them psychologically and emotionally the possible termination of life. The nurse or care giver must ready all desired information available relating to the patient condition; the necessary or expected responses of the family; the needed medicines; and the desired emotional acceptance of patient’s family members to an impending unchangeable fate. 2. Conducting a family meeting  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ this refer to the actual meeting of the medical professional and nurses with the family to discuss empirically the condition of the patient. This is a sober condition where medical practitioners would persuasively convey to the family the patient’s state and the impending limitation of its life toward potential termination. This meeting should be conducted in confidentially, cordial but often straightforward, and delivered with certain level of empathy. Attending physician will be illustrating to the family that all medical care has been exhausted for the patient and that the necessary support care needed to remove potential hindrances that may impinge the optimal transference of supportive strategies from health care professionals to family who are recipient of palliative care. The meeting will likewise discuss the needed supportive care and plan for the next step intervention that are relevant and imperative to make palliative care effective for the dying. This is the most difficult part because the practitioner is called to balance one’s values in decision-making, these being the cornerstone,

Book report on The stranger by Albert Camus Essay

Book report on The stranger by Albert Camus - Essay Example Albert Camus is considered to the French author of the Modernism era, and he is also famous by its philosophical views and journalistic articles. The philosophy of absurd has remained to be his notable contribution in the field of literature of that period (McCarthy, 5-6). This man has an individual and extraordinary world perception that he effuses in his creations. â€Å"The Stranger† has been first published in the year 1942 (McCarthy, 1). Albert Camus has had 29 years old, and that was a period of war and devastation. His father has been killed in the whirlpool of events that happened in the previous war (McCarthy, 3). That is why we may lead to personal and historical references while reading the book. Camus represents his own pattern of live vision that may seem ridiculous and irritating for the society. Still, this pattern may be understood from different perspective that author suggest us to query. The setting of the novel is the French colony of Algiers and the time is introduced the period before World War II. â€Å"The Stranger† represents two parts of the story that are thematically and logically divided. The main character is named Meursault. There are a few secondary characters in the story which help to develop the plot. The slant on the novel is tragic with the philosophical implications. The atmosphere is gloomy and dull with calm and confident inclusions. Novel â€Å"The Stranger† suggests to the audience the story about allegedly ordinary person Meursault who remains to be the recluse man with small needs and paltry subsistence. He is engaged in boring work, and lives in a small and dirty room. Physical necessities form more important value for Meursault than some entire personal feelings and moral dogmas. This man is viewed as a protagonist of the story. We also may regard him as anti-hero of the novel due to some perspective. Camus involves the readers into contradictory

Ap Biology Notes Cellular Communication Essay Example for Free

Ap Biology Notes Cellular Communication Essay Cell-to-cell communication is essential in multicellular organisms. They must communicate to coordinate activities such as growth and development, and reproduction. In addition unicellular organisms communicate with each other. Signals may use light, or touch but we will focus on chemical signals. 1. External signals are converted to responses within the cell a. Evolution of cell signaling i. In yeast a cells and ÃŽ ±cells both secrete chemicals, which can only be received by the alternate type yeast. This signals the two cells to join via fusion 1. The process by which the signal on the surface of the cell is converted to a series of steps by the cell in response is called a signal transduction pathway ii. Signal transduction pathways are very similar in yeast and in complex multicellular organisms 2. This leads scientists to believe that this pathway evolved first in ancient prokaryotes b. Local and long distance signaling iii. Local signaling 3. Adjacent cells of plants and animals may communicate through cell junctions a. Signaling substances dissolved in the cytoplasm travel between cells i. Plants = plasmodesmata ii. Animals = gap junctions 4. Animal cells may use the following b. Cell-to-cell recognition iii. Direct contact between membrane-bound cell-surface molecules iv. Important in embryonic development and immune response c. Paracrine signaling v. Uses local regulators which are released and travel only a short distance to nearby cells vi. Ex. Growth factors target nearby cells to grow and divide d. Synaptic signaling vii. Electrical signal along a nerve cell triggers a chemical release across a synapse to trigger response in target cell viii. Ex. Nerve cells iv. Long- distance signaling 5. Both plants and animals use hormones e. Animals (endocrine signaling) cells release hormones which travel in the circulatory system to target cells f. Plants hormones travel in vessels or by diffusion through the air as gas g. Hormones vary in size and shape 6. Nervous system signals can also be long distance c. The three stages of cell signaling: A preview v. Reception: when the target cell detects a signaling molecule. The signaling molecule binds to a receptor protein on the target cell’s surface vi. Transduction: After binding the receptor protein is changed in some way, this converts the signal to a form that will bring about a specific cellular response 7. May occur in a single step or a series of changes vii. Response: The transduced signal triggers a specific cellular response. 8. Catalysis of an enzyme, rearrangement of the cytoskeleton, activation of a specific gene 2. Reception: A signaling molecule binds to a receptor protein, causing it to change shape d. To ensure signals are sent to the correct cell signaling molecules act as a ligand. viii. Ligand- molecule that specifically binds to another (usually larger) molecule ix. The receptor protein then usually changes shape x. May be located on the membrane or inside the cell e. Receptors in the plasma membrane xi. Water-soluble signaling molecule binds to receptor on the membrane causing it to change shape or aggregate. f. Intracellular Receptors xii. Found in cytoplasm or nucleus of target cells 9. Signaling molecule must be hydrophobic enough or small enough to pass through the plasma membrane h. Steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, nitric oxide | Examples| Pathway| Other| G-Protein Coupled Receptors| Yeast mating factors, epinephrine, hormones, neurotransmitters| 1. signaling molecule binds to the g-protein receptor 2. receptor changes shape and the cytoplasmic side binds to the inactive G protein 3. GTP then displaces to form GDP and activates the protein 4. Activated G protein diffuses along the membrane to an enzyme altering the enzyme to trigger the next step| Bacteria such as whooping cough, botulism and cholera disrupt this pathway| Receptor Tyrosine Kinases| Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of phosphate groups| 1. binding of two signaling molecules to two tyrosine chains causes the two to associate with each other forming a dimer 2. dimerization activates the tyrosine kinase region to add a phosphate from and ATP to each tyrosine in the polypeptide 3. each tail can now bind to and activate a different specific relay protein within the cell| One receptor may activate ten+ pathways. Absence can result in cancer| Ion Channel Receptors| Nervous system| 1. signaling molecule binds to the ion channel in the membrane 2. protein changes shape creating a channel through the membrane 3. specific ions can now flow through the membrane which may cause a change in the cell or trigger another pathway| Some ion gated channels are controlled by change in voltage rather than binding of a ligand| g. Intracellular Receptors xiii. Ex. Testosterone 10. Hormone passes through the plasma membrane 11. Testosterone binds to a receptor protein in the cytoplasm activating it 12. The hormone-receptor complex enters the nucleus and binds to a specific gene 13. The bound protein acts as a transcription factor, stimulating the transcription of the gene into mRNA 14. The mRNA is translated into a specific protein 3. Transduction: cascades of molecular interactions relay signals from receptor to target molecules in the cell h. Protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation xiv. Proteins can be activated by the addition of a phosphate group (often broken off of ATP or GTP) 15. Phosphates are transferred from ATP to a protein by a general group of enzymes known as protein kinases i. Phosphorylation often causes the protein to change shape j. This happens because the added phosphate group interacts with polar or charged amino acids within the protein xv. Protein phosphatases are enzymes that remove phosphate groups from a protein 16. Mechanism for turning off signal transduction 17. These also allow for turning off and reusing pathways i. Small molecules and ions as second messengers xvi. Molecules other than proteins act as second messengers 18. Small and water soluble such as ions k. This allows them to rapidly spread throughout the cell via diffusion 19. Second messenger refers to anything after the first messenger which is the extracellular signaling molecule that binds to the membrane 20. Most common second messengers are cyclic AMP and Ca+2 xvii. Cyclic AMP as a second messenger in response to the hormone epinephrine 21. Epinephrine binds to receptor molecule protein activates adenylyl cyclase which can catalyze the synthesis of many molecules of cAMP l. Adenylyl cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP into cAMP ix. cAMP usually activates a serine/threonine kinase known as protein kinase A which phosphorylates many other proteins m. cAMP is converted back to AMP by phosphodiesterase xviii. Calcium ions and inositol tripohosphate 22. Increasing calcium concentration causes responses such as muscle contraction, secretion of substances, and cell division in animals, and greening in response to light in plants 23. Calcium is usually in high concentrations outside of the cell and in the ER but in low concentrations in the cytosol 24. Pathway n. Signaling molecule binds to receptor   o. Phospholipid pinches off membrane IP3 is released as second messenger p. IP3 binds to receptor on ER causing protein channel to open q. Ca+2 is released into cytosol 4. Response: Cell signaling leads to regulation of transcription or cytoplasmic activities j. Nuclear and cytoplasmic responses xix. Pathways lead to the regulation of one or more cellular activities 25. Regulate protein synthesis r. Turning specific genes on or off (calls for the synthesis of mRNA from DNA) 26. Regulate protein activity s. Cause a shape change to turn a protein on or off 27. Regulate overall shape change of cell 28. Release of mating factors 29. Cell division k. Fine-tuning of the response xx. Signal amplification 30. Enzyme cascades amplify effects by increasing the product at each step t. Enzymes stay active long enough to work on multiple products before becoming inactive xxi. The specificity of cell signaling and coordination of the response 31. Different types of cells are programmed to respond to only certain types of signals u. Some cells will respond to the same signals but in different ways v. This is because different cells have different collections of proteins xxii. Signaling efficiency: scaffolding proteins and signaling complexes 32. Scaffolding proteins increase the efficiency of the response w. A large protein with multiple protein kinases attached x. Decreases the time of the response because diffusion between proteins is not needed 33. Pathways are not linear, in fact the same protein may act in multiple pathways 34. Relay proteins serve as branch points where the signal may go in one of two directions xxiii. Termination of the signal 35. Each step in the pathway lasts only a short time, this makes the proteins ready for a new signal 36. When the signaling molecule leaves leave the receptor it reverts to its inactive form and the relay molecules follow

Participation Of Lac In Decision Making Social Work Essay

Participation Of Lac In Decision Making Social Work Essay Introduction This essay aims to critically evaluate service user involvement specifically for looked after children (LAC). It explores evidence and research that considers the value of listening to the views of children who are looked after; regarding decisions about the care and support they receive. It considers how Leicester City councils procedures enable young people to contribute in decision-making about their care and support, whilst considering any barriers which may hinder effective participation. It also looks at how my work can support this view, whilst considering local and national legislative policies and theoretical frameworks to enhance participation of children and young people to develop care services. Evidence-based social care is a conscientious, explicit and judicious use of evidence in making decisions about the care of children, which is based on skills which allow a social worker to evaluate personal experience and external evidence in a systematic and objective manner (Sackett et al 1997, cited in Smith, 2004:8). Evidence-based approach to decision-making needs to be transparent, accountable and based on consideration of the most compelling evidence. This means adopting an ethical obligation to justify claims to expertise, being transparency with service users about decision-making and how these are formulated. By placing the childrens interests first, an evidence-based social worker may adopt a lifelong learning that involves continually posing specific questions (hypothesis) whilst, searching objectively and efficiently for the current best practice (Gibbs, 2003). Evidence-based approach implies, among other things, the application of the best current evidence, the value of empirically based research findings, the requirement of critical approach for assessment and theories which support evidence informed practice. Therefore, the use of research and evidence to enhance transparency for service users and stakeholders may increase objectivity and fairness in decision-making process. This may increase confidence in the quality of debate around decisions, and lead to effective outcomes for service uses, thereby increasing credibility of services as well as supporting professional development for social workers. Evidence and research finding in participation of LAC in decision-making and developing care services The term participation is a broad and multi-layered concept used to describe many different processes. It covers the level, focus and content of decision-making as well as the nature of the participatory activity, frequency and duration of participation and children participation (Kirby et al., 2003). The level and nature of participation may vary. It may mean merely taking part, being present, being involved or consulted in decision-making or a transfer of power in order for the views of participants to have an influence on decisions (Boyden and Ennew, 1997). The focus of childrens participation also varies, with the participation of children and young people in matters which affect them as individuals and as a group (Franklin and Sloper, 2004:4). The participation of children and young people in decisions that affect them as individuals means taking into account their wishes, feelings and their perspectives. Procedures such as, assessment, care planning and LAC review meetings, child protection conferences or complaints are there to achieve this. The Children Act 1989 provides assessment for greater involvement of children and young people in decision-making. The participation of children in matters relating to them as a group can be through local and national identification, development, provision, monitoring or evaluation of services and policies (Franklin and Sloper, 2004:5). This may be achieved through consultation exercises and research, involvement of children and young people in management committees, advisory groups, youth forums, partnerships and community initiatives or in the delivery of community services by acting as mentors, counsellors, volunteers or workers (Sinclair and Franklin, 2000). Research and evidence suggest that children and young people should be involved in making decisions that affect them. This is reflected in law, government guidance as well as in various regulations and policies. Increasingly, children are identified as a group in their own right. In 1991, the UK ratified the United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child (Child Convention), which grants children and young people the rights to participate in decision-making. Article 12 of the Child Convention provides that Children have the right to say what they think should happen when adults are making decisions that affect them, and to have their opinions taken into account. This may not necessarily mean that children and young people should directly make those decisions, rather that adults involve them in the decision-making process. The Care Standards Act 2000 highlights the importance of childrens participation in decision-making. Looked after children are entitled and should be encouraged to participate in the decision making-process. Policy documents and research relating to services for LAC and young people indicate the importance of their participation in decision-making both in policy-making as well as in practice. Research studies have emphasised the value of engaging with the perspectives of LAC (Thomas and Beckford, 1999; OQuigley, 2000). New initiatives from the Government such as the LAC Materials, Quality Protects, the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families, the Common Assessment Framework as well as other associated practice guides and non-governmental organisations have carried the same message (Jackson and Kilroe, 1996; Department of Health et al, 2000; Department of Health, 2002; Department for Education and Skills, 2004; Jenkins and Tudor, 1999; Horwath, 2000; British Association of Social Workers, 2003). Standard textbooks on social work with children and families as well as specialist texts on particular areas of practice have emphasised not only the desirability of listening to LAC but also in many cases their right to inclusion (Brandon et al, 1998; Butler and Roberts, 1997, Gilligan, 2001; Wheal, 2002). Evidence and research are implemented in practice, particularly in the agencies that actually look after children and young people, the decision-making processes involving looked after children and in interactions between those children and adults. However, some indication may also be gained from social workers directly involved in interpreting evidence and research findings and applying them into their practice (Thomas, 2005). This can be evaluated in terms of looking at the organisations policies and procedures for looked after children in decision-making process, involving LAC to give advice of how to include them with planning and review meetings and service planning, such as supporting them to access independent advocacy, and give them opportunities to meet together, meet with their friends, and support their voice, for example to make complaints and to include their views when writing and recording decisions about them. However, social worker may be described as making significant efforts to listen to children and young people, but the children and young people may necessarily feel that their voices are being heard. A study has found that whereas adults see listening in terms of paying respectful attention to what children and young people have to say, children and young people feel that listening is demonstrated by the delivery of services that accord with their expressed wishes (McLeod, 2006). Also, whilst adults regard the role of social worker as providing emotional support and therapeutic intervention, many children and young people regard their role as providing practical support combined with promotion of their self-determination (McLeod, 2006). These findings have implications for childcare social work. Participation of LAC in decision-making in Leicester City Council Leicester City Councils policy and guidance emphasise on the importance to involve children in the decision-making process in line with their age and understanding. Staff, carers, parents and children are informed about this policy through handbooks, workshops and interagency training events. Parents are informed by social workers, either formal, informal or both. The Leicester City Council Young Peoples Charter states that young people have the right to be listened to, have their view taken seriously and to be involved in decisions that affect them. Leicester City Council has also a Children and Young Peoples Strategic Partnership (2007) which is committed to involve and consult as many children, young people and their families as possible. The aim of this participation strategy is to enable children, young people and families to participate in decision-making process, service review and delivery as well as to influence policies and decisions that affect them. Leicester City Council has a policy which actively promotes the involvement of LAC in planning and review meetings. As a department, it has legal responsibilities as corporate parents. The policy encourages LAC to attend any meeting where their Care Plan will be discussed and decision made about their lives. However, some children or young people I have been working with feel that whether or not they attend the LAC planning and review meetings does not really make a difference because they consider those meetings to be merely procedural. A study has found that many children and young people find the review meetings as still alienating, uncomfortable, negative and boring process (Voice for the Child in Care, 2004, 51). The decision-making process may prioritise the best interests of the child, which may not necessarily represent what the child may consider to be his/her best interest on his/her own world. Planning and review meetings for LAC are chaired by an independent person, who has a duty to ensure that the views and feelings of children and young people are taken into account. However decision has to be made procedurally to meet the goals of the local authority, which may not take into account the needs of the child. Leicester City Council promotes the use of independent advocacy services for LAC, and makes provisions with representation when they make complaints. Leicester City Councils Children Rights and Participation Services works independently to ensure that children and young people participate in decision-making that affect them and that they are fully represented in their complaints. However, the independence of this Service may be questionable. The head of the Service is responsible to the head of Safeguarding Services Department who is also responsible to the Director of Children Services, who may influence the Department in performing its functions. Leicester City Council provides opportunities for LAC to meet together. This is done through a Children Forum within the organisation which organises different activities, such as dramas, role plays, and singing to enable them to express their feelings. The Children Forum also has a looked after children football team led by a youth worker who is attached to the LAC Services. Leicester City Council has policy guidance which requires prior permission from children to stay with friends overnight. However, there can be conflicts of interests when considering Frazer/Gillick competence of young peoples voices. Firstly, the process of performing checks may take time as it involves collecting information relating to the host, some of which may not be available before the proposed date of visit. This delay may cause the child or young person to feel that his/her wishes are not being considered and may also raise the childs level of anxiety. Secondly, young persons from another authority without checking requirements may be placed in the same placement with those from Leicester City Council. Those from Leicester City Council might feel not only that there are double standards, but they may also lose their trust to the social worker involved in granting the permission. Children who have taken part in research meetings have resented that their ordinary social contacts were obstructed by requirements to get a special permission, or even police clearance, before they could stay overnight with their friends, and wanted their carers to be able to make these decisions unimpeded (Thomas and OKane, 1998). As a social worker, it therefore, important to be aware of legislative and guidance requirements of participation as well as understand the benefits of participation. As Kirby et al (2003) pointed out the fact that participation is part of the law or a public policy is not enough to convince social workers to engage in the work of children and young people. However, there are obstacles to the inclusion of LAC and young people in decision-making process. These include the lack of staff and time caused by high case loads and other demands such as child protection work, court reports, and core assessments. There is also a lack of a common understanding of participation and this can be confusing for a social worker when working with other agencies with different understandings. Also, it may not cost a penny to listen to children and young people, but it cost money to ensure a development of an effective participation (Kirby, 2003). Organisations rarely dedicate a budget for participation (Cutler and Taylor, 2003). The notion of childrens participation in decision-making pertains to all children as a social group. However, historically, childrens participation has tended to focus on children in need. As a result, childrens participation has often been associated with forms of multiple disadvantage and social exclusion. LAC falls into the category of marginalised groups of children and young people. Young People with difficult life experiences are likely to have less confidence and self-esteem to participate in decision-making. For those who had their views and feelings not taken into account in the past, they are likely to be less motivated to participate in LAC planning and review meetings. If the past difficult experiences resulted from mistreatment by adults, they are likely not to trust the current adults intentions to engage them in participation. LAC may be subject to negative assumptions and stereotypes which may affect their full participation in decisions making (McNeish, 1999). Enhancing the participation of LAC in decision-making It is a good practice for carers to be empowered to make decisions for LAC wanting to stay with friends overnight, provided that they are able to assess the situation and make those decisions as if they were their own biological children. There should be a policy that explicitly allows for delegation to carers. For example, the Welsh Assembly Government has issued a guidance which makes it clear that criminal records checks should not be sought before an overnight stay, that decisions should in most circumstances be delegated to foster parents and residential care staff, and that looked after children should as far as possible be granted the same permissions to take part in such acceptable age appropriate peer activities as would reasonably be granted by the parents of their peers (National Assembly for Wales Circular NAFWC 50/2004). Planning and review meetings should be chaired by a totally independent person, not someone employed by Leicester City council. One may argue that this may cause tension between independence provided by an outside Chair and the risk of alienating the child by having a stranger at their review. However, a chair coming within the organisation may not be fully independent as s/he may also be under a duty to promote the vision and goals of the organisation which may conflict with his/her role. There is a need for an effective definition of participation which encompasses an understanding of participation as an activity and as a process aiming at achieving positive outcomes for LAC, young people and organisations. Establishing a shared definition of participation can be a challenge, but once identified, it can benefit the organisations in terms of being consistence in the participation of children and young people in decision-making. There is a need for participation work to be adequately resourced in a long term basis as this will enable change (Robson, et al, 2003). Alternatively, the current budget should ensure that it is resourced to the participation of children and young people, particularly LAC. Maybe consideration to the times of day for young people should be taking into account, when holding review meetings, and not having as many people attending, which could be intimidating. Perhaps the local authority could consider using text messages or social networks to get real feedback about the views of young people. Perhaps to work in a more child centred way the process of participation may have more meaning to the child or young person, rather than being a process driven exercise. Conclusion There is plenty evidence and research findings on participation of LAC in decision-making and developing care services. They range from legislation, participation guidance, researches to academic works. All these influence social workers in practice. Leicester City Council attaches importance to the participation of LFC in decision-making. Nonetheless, participation of LAC means that children should be actively involved in the decision-making that affects them; and the adults who have the responsibility for these children should ensure that their views and wishes are listened to and represented in decision-making. REFERECES Boyden, J. and Ennew, J. (1997) Children in Focus. A manual for participatory research with children. Stockholm: RÃ ¤dda Barnen Brandon M, Schofield G and Trinder L, (1998) Social Work with Children, Basingstoke: Macmillan Butler I and Roberts G, (1997) Social Work with Children and Families: Getting into practice, London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers Culter, D. and Taylor, A. (2003) Expanding and Sustaining Involvement: a Snapshot of Participation Infrastructure for Young People Living in England, London: Carnegie Young People Initiative Department for Education and Skills (2004) Integrated Childrens System London: The Stationary Office Department of Health (2002) Listening, Hearing and Responding (Department of Health Action Plan: Core principles for the involvement of children and young people, available at http://www.longtermventilation.nhs.uk/_Rainbow/Documents/Listening,%20Hearing,%20responding%20to%20Children..pdf [accessed on 7/11/2012] Department of Health, et al, (2000) Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families, London: The Stationery Office Franklin, A and Sloper, P. (2004) Participation of Disabled Children and Young People in Decision-Making Within Social Services Departments, Quality Protect Research Initiatives, Interim Report York: The University of York Gibbs, L., (2003) Evidence-Based Practice for the Helping Professions: A Practical Guide with Integrated Multimedia, Brooks: Pacific Grove Gilligan R, Promoting Resilience: A resource guide on working with children in the care system, London: BAAF, 2001 Horwath J (ed) (2000), The Childs World: Assessing children in need, London: Jessica Kingsley Kirby, P. and Bryson, S. (2002) Measuring the Magic? Evaluating and Researching Young Peoples Participation in Public Decision-Making London: Carnegie Young People Initiative Kirby, P, et al (2003) Building a Culture of Participation, London: Department for Education and Skills Jackson S and Kilroe S (eds) (1996), Looking After Children: Good parenting, good outcomes, Reader, London: HMSO Jenkins J and Tudor K, (1999) Being Creative with Assessment and Action Records, Tonypandy: Rhondda Cynon Taff Borough Council Leicester City Council (2007) Leicester City Children ad Young Peoples Strategic Partnership: Participation Strategy Leicester: Leicester City Council McLeod, A., (2006) Respect or Empowerment? Alternative Understandings of Listening in Childcare Social Work Adoption and Fostering, Vol. 30, pp. 43-52 OQuigley A, (2000) Listening to Childrens Views: The findings and recommendations of recent research, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 2000 McNeish, D. (1999) From Rhetoric to Reality: Participatory Approaches to health Promotion with Young People, London: Health Education Authority Robson, P., et al (2003) Increasing User Involvement in Voluntary Organisation, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation Sinclair, R. and Franklin, A. (2000) Young Peoples Participation, Quality Protects Research Briefing, No.3. London: Department of Health Smith, D (2004) Social Work and Evidence based Practice: Research Highlights in Social Work, London: Jessica Kingsley Publisher Thomas, N., (2005) Has anything really changed? Managers views of looked after childrens participation in 1997 and 2004 Adopting and Fostering, Vol. 29, pp. 67-77 Thomas C, and Beckford V, (1999) Adopted Children Speaking, London: BAAF Thomas N and OKane C. (1998), What makes me so different? Community Care 1253 Voice for the Child in Care, (2004) Start with the Child, Stay with the Child: A blueprint for a child-centred approach to children and young people in public care, London: Voice for the Child in Care Wheal A (ed.) (2002), The RHP Companion to Leaving Care, Lyme Regis: Russell House Publishing

Media Bias And How It Affects Us Media Essay

Media Bias And How It Affects Us Media Essay The media affects our daily lives in numerous ways from television to radio to print. Sometimes these media avenues persuade our opinions on certain issues such as abortion, homosexuality, racism, and political. Numerous times throughout history the media has downplayed bias, which simply means prejudiced (â€Å"biased†). Media bias dates back to the early days of the newspaper and continues to this present day (Media Bias US 5). There are many examples throughout history showing biased media. Benjamin Franklin wrote a great example of early media bias in 1728 when he wrote an article in favor of printing paper money. Franklin did not specify he would be one of the beneficiaries, in terms of business, in printing the money (Media Bias US 5). Sometimes such bias pushed the political leaders of the time to limit the freedom of press, as did Abraham Lincoln when he ordered many newspapers, in favor of the South during the American Civil War era, to shutdown operation (Media Bia s US 5). There are countless times in history where the media has been bias towards one particular point of view. Many people in America today are not even aware the media is manipulating their way of thinking, although statistics state Americans realize the media is biased (Media Bias Basics 21-23). Some media bias has proven to be good, such as the mixing of racial characters in movies. The downside to this, however, was parts of the South would not show the racially mixed programs on television, as they believed in being separate and wanted to keep their agenda pushed through the media (Media Bias US 6). Most media bias is wrong and puts misguided thoughts and ideas into the minds of unknowing Americans. A good instance of this type of biased occurred when CBS aired falsified documents degrading both the character and the military service of George W. Bush (Media Bias US 3). Dan Rather eventually had to step down as anchor of CBS news for the story, as much of the public agreed that the news story and reporter swayed towards the liberal side. A poll taken in 2001 shows those in the media are four times as likely to identify with being â€Å"liberal† as compared to â€Å"conservative† (Media Bias Basics 11). This same report also showed members of the media were seven times more likely to identify with being a Democrat as opposed to being a Republican (Media Bias Basics 11, 12). This is a staggering statistics when a 2001 Gallop Poll found only 18 percent of the American people identify with being liberal, as opposed to 41 percent identify with being conservative (Media Bias Basics 15). While most may agree the media is bias to some extent, the media, for the most part, slants to the left when dealing with issues. While some may believe this is good, there are also consequences and repercussions to believing everything shown on television, radio, and in print. There are many different types of bias in the media. From racial to corporate, to bias appealing to the senses such issues persuade our views on issues and we are bombard daily by them (Media Bias 1). A good example of media entertaining these different types of media bias are there have been many missing people reported by the media, predominantly white women; this has lead some to speculate the news media shows more favor towards white girls who are attractive, as opposed to men and nonOsborne 3 white women by the media (Missing 1-3). While there are many other examples to media bias in these particular avenues, the topic the media spends the most time on is government and the political system. Very few, if any, media outlets existing today are striving to give the American people a balanced report on the news. A report done by the Project for Excellence in Journalism has published a report of the news media networks, of those reported only Fox News Channel reported positive (38%) about the same as they did negative or neutral (39%) on the war in Iraq (Annual Report 8). Much of the left accuses Fox News of containing a conservative point of view with many liberals not agreeing with the programming on Fox News no matter if it is true or not (Media Bias News Networks 1). Other media outlets fair poorly with conservatives too, with conservatives rating CNN and CBS amongst the worst in reporting the news (Media Bias News Networks 1). It is therefore not surprising the media outlet one political party despises, the other enjoys; as such, the majority of conservatives think highly of Fox News, with liberals thinking highly of CNN and PBS (Media Bias News Networks 2). Moreover, it is not surprising conservatives and liberals said the news anchors they found most entertaining were on the news networks they favored most (Media Bias News Networks 2). There are many different areas and topics for the media to cover; how the media covers those topics is solely up to them. Their mistakes these media outlets make in journalism, by using the power of persuasion, make it evident in the way people from various groups vote and feel about certain topics. While some may argue certain media outlets are better than others are, the argument of biased media will always be an issue. Since the founding of America there has always been media bias good and bad it has always helped shape the way Americans look at politics and the way the people vote.

Essay --

Kierra Spaulding Media Criticism 3/11/2014 Professor Seong Min Reaction Paper: Killing Us Softly 4 I agree a great deal with the films idea of the media distorting the images of women. In the beginning of the film Jean Kilbourne states that, â€Å"the average American is exposed to over 3,000 ads every single day†. Thus, the advertising industry has the power to impact our outlook on many things in society including women. The issue is that advertisers are not looking out for our best interest; their main goal is to increase profit. As a result, individuals are physically, mentally, and emotionally affected by our culture’s unrealistic ideal image of beauty. I believe that we are constantly presented with this falsehood in the media about loving our bodies; only if our bodies are conveniently situated in what society finds attractive. For example, back in 2010, Victoria’s Secret launched the â€Å"Love Your Body† campaign. While it is very important to encourage everyone to love their body, the women depicted in the campaign all have the same body type. There is nothing wrong with their body type which is considered very slender, tall, long legs, and toned. The issue is that this is the only body presented in the campaign which makes women with other body types feel inferior and not of value. To this day, Victoria’s Secret still chooses to use this particularly slender body type to advertise their lingerie and such. Contrary to Victoria’s Secret, Dove started â€Å"The Dove Campaign for Real Beauty† in 2004. The campaign was started due to the fact that it was necessary to broaden the idea of beauty because it had become limiting and unattainable. The campaign included women of all different sizes as opposed to Victor... ...le more aware of these issues. However, the problems are still not being fixed. In fact, due to the unrealistic ideals of what a women’s body should look like, there are an enormous number of girls starting as young as 6 who hate their bodies to the extent of skipping dinner. Females are driven to the point of anorexia, bulimia, as well as binge eating. Women go on extreme diets that are not realistic to stay healthy causing them to go on excessive binges which in return are even worse. The statement â€Å"If looks could kill† can actually be taken literally because women are trying to â€Å"look† the part while unfortunately killing themselves emotionally, mentally, and physically. Sources Dove Campaign http://www.dove.us/social-mission/campaign-for-real-beauty.aspx Victoria’s Secret Campaign http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/03/01/victorias-secret-launches_n_480435.html

Billy Bathegate by EL Doctorow Essay -- Essays Papers

Billy Bathegate by EL Doctorow Billy Bathgate is an important American novel in it’s portrayal of one young man’s evolution from boyhood to maturity. The novel is about a fifteen year old boy that gets taken under the wing of Dutch Schultz, a 1930’s gangster trying to keep a hold of his diminishing empire. As the novel unfolds, so does the rising maturity of the tough young man introduced to us as Billy Bathgate. Billy finds himself in situations that most of us never see in our whole life. In difference to the reactions that most people would have in these situations, Billy learns from them in order to better his role in the crime family. It is for these reasons that the young fifteen year old boy quickly develops into a man. Author Overview The novel was written in 1989 by a contemporaneous author named E. L. Doctorow. Doctorow was born in 1931 and fantasized about the 1930’s crime life as a child. He is an American novelist, short story writer, editor, essayist, as well as a dramatist. His works include Big as Life, The Book of Daniel, Ragtime, Loon Lake, World’s Fair, , Lives of the Poets: Six Stories and a Novella, a play entitled Drinks Before Dinner and of course his most recent work Billy Bathgate. Billy Bathgate is Doctorow’s most famous piece of literature. In fact, the book grasped so much attention that it was later made into a movie with an all star cast including Bruce Willis, Dustin Hoffman and Nicole Kidman. Although the film left out a lot of detail, as so many movies based on novels tend to do, it was interesting to see the elaborate detail given to the clothing, attitude, and backdrop that so accurately reflect the inner city Bronx in the 1930’s. Doctorow’s ex plicit, graphic detail show his almost fascination with crime and murder. He almost glamorizes the life of crime in Billy Bathgate. Critical Analisys Although Billy Bathgate was written quite recently, there is an influx of critical opinion reflecting the admiration of Doctorow’s artistry in literature. "Critics marveled at Doctorow’s vivid description of New York City in the 1930’s and of the horrific murders committed by Dutch and his gang."(CLC volume 65 Author Overview) "Billy Bathgate is intended as pure myth, a sort of Robin Hood for grown-ups. Other novels may be more psychologically subtle or emotionally resonant. But few of those ... ...sting novel that I have ever had the pleasure of reading. It is one of those novels that you just can not put down if you try. Billy Bathgate is a vital American novel in it’s portrayal of a boy’s journey to become a man. Bibliography: Bemrose, John. "Growing Up in Gangland." in Maclean’s Magazine. March 1989: 58-9. Vol. 102, No 12 Clifford, Andrew. "True-ish Crime Stories." in The Listener. September 1989: p.29. vol. 122, no. 3131. Eder, Richard. "Siege Perilous in the Court of Dutch Schultz." in Los Angeles Times Book Review. March 1989. p. 3. Kazin, Alfred. "Huck in the Bronx." in The New Republic. March 1989. Pp.40-2. Leonard, John. "Bye Bye Billy." in The Nation. April 1989. pp. 40-2. Vol. 200 no. 12 Pease, Donald E. "Billy Bathgate- a Review" America. May 1989. P. 458-59 Rubin, Merle. "Bathgate: Technique Surpasses Tale." The Christian Science Monitor. March 1989. p. 13 Rushdie, Salman. "Billy the Streetwise Kid." The Observer. September 1989. P.51 Tonkin, Boyd. "A Round Table Story." New Statesman & Society. September 1989. P. 37 Tyler, Anne. "An American Boy in Gangland." The New York Times Book Review. February 1989. P. 1, 46

Techniques for Authentic Assessment :: Learning Education Educational Essays

Techniques for Authentic Assessment Learning is . . . a dynamic process in which learners actively construct knowledge . . . the acquisition and organization of information into a series of increasingly complex understandings . . . influenced by context (Holt 1992). Educators who view learning in this way realize that quantitative methods of evaluating learners do not "measure up." Authentic forms of assessment present a more qualitative and valid alternative. Authentic assessments (AAs) incorporate a wide variety of techniques "designed to correspond as closely as possible to `real world' student experiences" (Custer 1994, p. 66). They are compatible with adult, career, and vocational education. After all, apprenticeship is a time-honored form of authentic learning: skills taught in context. "High-performance workplaces" demand critical thinking, self-directed learning, and individual responsibility for career development (Borthwick 1995; Jones 1994)-which the process of AA can develop. This Practice Application Brief describes types of authentic assessment, explains some of the advantages and challenges they present, and highlights some best practices in design and implementation, with specific examples from adult, career, and vocational education. What Are AAs? Assessments are authentic when they have meaning in themselves-when the learning they measure has value beyond the classroom and is meaningful to the learner. AAs address the skills and abilities needed to perform actual tasks. The following are some tools used in authentic assessment (Custer 1994; Lazar and Bean 1991; Reif 1995; Rudner and Boston 1994): checklists (of learner goals, writing/reading progress, writing/reading fluency, learning contracts, etc.); simulations; essays and other writing samples; demonstrations or performances; intake and progress interviews; oral presentations; informal and formal observations by instructors, peers, and others; self-assessments; and constructed-response questions. Students might be asked to evaluate case studies, write definitions and defend them orally, perform role plays, or have oral readings recorded on tape. They might collect writing folders that include drafts and revisions showing changes in spelling and mechanics, revision strateg ies, and their history as a writer. Perhaps the most widely used technique is portfolio assessment. Portfolios are a collection of learner work over time. They may include research papers, book reports, journals, logs, photographs, drawings, video and audiotapes, abstracts of readings, group projects, software, slides, test results; in fact, many of the assessment tools listed earlier could have a place in a portfolio. However, the hallmark of a portfolio used for assessment is that the contents are selected by the learner (Hayes et al.

Identify the following components of the system discussed in your textbook

The input device is the laser beam that sweeps across the bar code; the process involves reading the bar code and transferring it to the computer system. Output devices include: The handheld scanner serves as the output device as it has a screen that displays the price of the product; feedback: (in terms of hardware – the handheld scanner is connected to a computer system by a Universal Serial Bus (USB) cable. The handheld scanner has a lens and a laser light that scans the bar code. Software, – the scanner has a software program (POS software which comes with the scanner) that integrates the scanner with the computer system.Data and network taxonomies: the database is located on the computer system and the scanner fetches the information from the database and then displays the information on the small LCD screen attached onto it. Data is transferred to the computer system by using Bluetooth technology. Please list as much information as you could find on the scanner sy stem, and discuss the supporting technologies. The light detection system is a s photodiode that conducts electricity when light energy falls on it and does not conduct any electricity when light energy does not fall on it.There are lenses on the scanner that concentrate the laser beam. This is made up of either highly polished glass or plastic. The scanner also has holographic disks used to record laser images. the material used for this disk is a highly reflecting material. Then comes the encoder (a photodetector) that will transfer the image to the computer in the (electrical signals) digital form. It consists of a converter that converts the read code in the form of light energy to a digital form that can be decoded by the software program. The barcode reader is connected to the central computer system via a Bluetooth.This is the IEEE 802. 15. 3 protocol. b. Please classify that kind of a system is this (TPS, DSS, EIS, MIS, etc. )? Why? In this situation, the barcode scanner is functioning as a Point of Sale System (POS). This is because the scanner aids in determining the value of the goods after the customer might have bought them and is ready to pay for them. c. Having the information electronically in the system may provide opportunities for additional managerial uses. Other possible managerial use that the information can be put to includes accounting.It would be easy to manipulate the data in order to calculate the profit or loss of the supermarket. Also, it also helps in accountability because the supermarket is able to monitor all the sales it has made. Also, the supermarket would be able to harvest data about which goods consumers are purchasing and at what rate. This would afford the supermarket the opportunity of stocking these kind of goods and by so doing, increase the returns in terms of profit. Also, manufacturers are able to determine which goods consumers are purchasing more, and focus on producing these particular goods.Also, it gives the m room to improve on the ones that seem not to be moving. In marketing, the supermarket can focus on commodities that are in high demand and also improve on the sale of the ones that are not in such a high demand. In Human Resources, the supermarket can identify sales representatives that are selling more goods and reward them accordingly while reprimanding the ones that seen not to be selling much. The supermarket can then fire the redundant workers and reward the hardworking ones accordingly.In transportation, it can aid them in planning which products to stock in which part of the shop. Also in security, it would eliminate tampering with prices of commodities as some dubious customers may want to engage in. in this way, customers cannot have any reason for paying less for the commodities they purchase. d. When did the scanner system come into existence? Where was this technology initiated? Research and provide a brief history of the scanner technology (during the past 20 years). The history of bar code technology is a long and convoluted one.it is the story of one of the technologies that took a lot of research and time to complete because most of it was by personal effort on the part of the inventors. The invention is credited to Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver in 1952. They were awarded the patent for the first barcode. it was initially designed as the structure of a bull eye model and the reader was an infrared sensitive inc. however the inventors found out that this was too expensive and they had to change it. They finally settled for code identification through the medium of identifying patterns. Bar code was first commercially in 1966.By 1970, a company set the standard for writing the code. It was called the Universal Grocery Products Identification Code (UGPIC). This code evolved to become the (Universal Product Code) U. P. C symbol set in 1973. The UCC (formerly The Uniform Product Code Council, Inc. ) is responsible for issuing product numbers and specifications. e. Research and report on how such scanner type related systems will be operating in the future. What are the new technologies, such as RFID, in this area? State other types and names, and describe them. Barcode scanners are being taken a step further.The new kinds of barcode scanners being developed nowadays now come with in-build cameras instead of normal laser scanners. They are called two dimensional (2D) scanners. They use a small video camera to capture the bar code image. The reader then decodes the digital image with a digital image processing device which is in built. Video cameras use the same CCD technology as in a CCD bar code reader except that instead of having a single row of sensors, a video camera has hundreds of rows of sensors arranged in a two dimensional array so that they can generate an image.`This image is then processed, either by the scanner if it is a PDA scanner of the image is transferred to another kind of processing machine, it can ne a computer system f. Which countries and companies are at the forefront of the development of RFID technology? Is there any international standard emerging? What new societal issues or challenges are they likely to create? Samsung is one of the companies in the forefront of RFID technology research. It is in the process of deploying RFID systems into its wide array of mobile phones.The company is an international company. Japan is also one of the countries that are intensively researching into the RFID technology. Various companies in Japan are also researching into the technology. Challenges might come in the area of implementing RFID technology because some people are already speculating on the privacy infringement that RFID technology might pose to consumers since most of the commodities they could be purchasing would have been labeled and this has the potential of reporting the location of the individual.Therefore, unless people are reassured that this is not going to take pl ace, they might not embrace the technology. A lot of factors could also militate against the implementation of FRID technology. They include the environment, cost, resistance to technological change, lack of integration and as mentioned earlier can all influence the implementation of this technology. WORKS CITED. 1. http://www. textually. org/picturephoning/archives/2007/11/018097. htm

Moral Courage Essay

Moral courage is a concept means doing the right thing, it means listening to conscience that what does it saying. Standing on what believe. Moral courage has three major elements witch are principle, endurance and danger. it means moral courage and doing right things make us in the risk, we may face fear and danger for example with losing o job and security, reputation or etc. But falling in the risk is not matter because we follow our conscience and it is important because I believe that conscience is based on values and show us the way to be human. Moral courage is standing up for values such as honesty, fairness, compassion, respect and responsibility but just having these values are not enough we have to try to put them into practice and we have to commitment to moral principles as well, so in the practice we may face with danger and we have to confidence to endure hardship, suffer and sacrifice. In this sense we can see moral courage in action. According to Kennedy (1956) moral courage is â€Å"the Basis of All Human Morality.† he mentioned that Courageous men do as they do because they love themselves, they respect themselves and their reputation for integrity and their personal standard of their ethics all are more important than their popularity with others or desire to maintain their offices. For having these all values they have to fall in the risk as it done with senator George Norris, with Nelson Mandela and Malala Youssafzai, that all of them stood on what they believed and what they knew that is right. They struggled for higher purpose and having greater values such as human rights and for justice and they found these straggle as their duty to fulfill their obligation. So as consequence we saw that all of them faced with challenges and danger and they endured hardship situation but they could to have significant acheivement. for World War 1 that was started in 1914, US government declared that they would remain neutral but in reality it was not like this and US supported England by carrying guns through Armed Merchant ships and was against German so after German submarines sank three American Merchant Ships in 1917, president Wilson declared for entering into WW1 and asked for congressional approval. Senator Norris was opposing of US entre into World Ward 1 so he filibustered the Armed merchant Ship bill and he faced with very hardship situation and condemned by American press but he didn’t gave up and he believed on the rightness of his course, he was not care about holding his office he just listened to his conscience and tried to say truth to people. So finally he did and informed people about the reality that is behind of this policy he said that these ships used for carrying war supplier to England and country try to enter in the war because of financial benefits of a certain groups of people. Senator Norris did a moral courage action because he said the truth to the people he knew about the terrible result of involving in the WW1 and he believed that war brings no prosperity to great mass of people so his consciences made him to make judgment although his political career was under risk but he pursued justice. Regarding Nelson Mandela, I have to say that he struggled against apartheid and racial discrimination and inequality. Many movements and protests were raised with his leadership against Apartheid and he also joint to Afghan National Congress and tried to provide equality for the black people and give them their rights but he understood that these kind of nonviolent protests or movements do not work in the society that is commanded by group of people who doesn’t follow their conscience so he decided to involve in sabotage and planned for armed struggle. When he arrested by state, he and his fellows didn’t deny his involvement in sabotage and armed struggle he said the truth and he indicted state for discrimination, for inequality, for abuse of black people’s right and freedom. He said that state should feel guilty. Mandela wanted a light future for black people and the basic rights which were neglected by state. He wanted a society that all people can live together in a peace and harmony. In the court he spoke up with integrity and truth as a result he could bring prosperity for black people. He suffered and endured 27 years of his life in prison for his vision and when he was elected as a president, he focused on fostering racial reconciliation and forgiving his oppressors in Apartheid regime. Above all show his moral courage struggle and even after he came to power as president. Malala Youssafzai also was another example who stood on women right for education as it was banded by Talban regime. First she understood that it is her right to continue her education and wanted this right for other girls as well so she tried to speak up and stand on her right. She followed and listed to her conscience and believed that this is right. She had many speeches to explain and inform others that what is happening under Taliban regime and as a result she shot by Taliban and had very hardship situation but after recovery she didn’t give up and straggled for women’s right until she could influence on girl’s accessibility to education in Pakistan.

African American Cinema Essay

The subject of African-Americans in Motion Pictures provides some of the most interesting studies along with the many controversial interpretations of the roles as actors they played on screen. As far back as the silent films era, African-Americans have been featured in motion pictures playing roles depicting some aspect of acting and being purveyors of a black image. The messages or themes of these movies have over the years presented a mixture of images based upon what was thought to please the viewers of each particular film. Unfortunately, many of those films showed black characters in negative stereotypical roles, which the average African-Americans would never truly identify as being like themselves. Since many of our American icons and heroes have come from our motion picture stars, we need to understand what this narrow view presented and compare it with what we presently see at our local cinema today. The movies Guess Who’s Coming To Dinner (1967), Shaft (1971), Do The Right Thing (1989), Boys n the Hood (1991), and Menace to Society (1993) show a thematic style and stereotypes in the way that black films have progressed over the years. The motion picture industry was never too quick to change their approach in presenting African-Americans in realistic roles depicting social or civil conditions in an integrated context. Many of these roles required scenes showing African-Americans in positions of authority or relating to white Americans in a positive way. This Integration Period therefore brought together African-American actors with scenes along side white actors in roles showing both players dealing with racial conflict and resolution. Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner was truly a unique film for its time in that Sidney Poitier’s character breaks all the stereotypical views of blacks in American Cinema. In the early 1930’s blacks were portrayed as lower class, slow-witted figures of entertainment, often showed in menstrual shows. Poitier’s character broke all these stereotypes. 1971 brought to the big screen a successive series of superhero black or â€Å"blaxploitation† films. Shaft was released in 1971, and Richard Roundtree was the superman black hero detective. He was compared by many to the white James Bond. Related to Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner, Shaft took it up a notch in showing a black man as a hero. Poitier’s role was one to equalize whites and blacks in their roles in American cinema, but Shaft showed a black man who was an authoritative figure. Different themes can be mixed in between the two movies. They both show an intelligent black man that has a grip on reality. Both movies showed themes of how integration has struck America. They differ though on a level in that Shaft was a black dominant cast and Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner was predominantly white. Do the Right Thing, Boyz n the Hood, and Menace to Society were all produced in a more modern era, hence the fact that they all have similar racial themes. The films all paint a picture of urban Black America in their time period. All three films are thought to be racially reactionary films aimed at the psyche of both black and white viewers. The movies were all a success due to the touched topics of racial situations, ethnic tensions, and human encounters of anger. The superb casts of both black and white actors made the motion picture industry aware of a newer avenue for films and race relations. African-Americans in motion pictures in today’s expanding world of visual imagery can be seen on many expanding fronts. We see the making of motion pictures on subjects or themes which can be taken from history, life experiences, music, and unexplored events. Today’s markets are open, and African-Americans are taking advantage of these open door opportunities. Actors and actresses are expanding their roles from stage acting to movies to TV miniseries to video cassettes or discs, and roles taken from books, plus movie soundtracks. In our world today African-American actors and actresses will always have a place in American Cinema and their future looks bright and promising.

Evolution of Management Essay

As long as there have been human endeavors, there have been people willing to take charge—people willing to plan, organize, staff, and control the work. One might say that nature abhors a vacuum and thus someone will always step forward to fill a leadership void. Probably the natural emergence of leadership grew out of our instinct for survival. In the hostile world of early humankind, food, shelter, and safety needs usually required cooperative efforts, and cooperative efforts required some form of leadership. Certainly leadership was vested in the heads of early families via the patriarchal system. The oldest member of the family was the most experienced and was presumed to be the wisest member of the family and thus was the natural leader. As families grew into tribes and tribes evolved into nations, more complex forms of leadership were required and did evolve. Division of labor and supervision practices is recorded on the earliest written record, the clay tablets of the Sumerians. In Sumerian society, as in many others since, the wisest and best leaders were thought to be the priests and other religious leaders. Likewise, the ancient Babylonian cities developed very strict codes, such as the code of Hammurabi. King Nebuchadnezzar used color codes to control production of the hanging gardens, and there were weekly and annual reports, norms for productivity, and rewards for piecework. The Egyptians organized their people and their slaves to build their cities and pyramids. Construction of one pyramid, around 5000 BC. , required the labor of 100,000 people working for approximately 20 years. Planning, organizing, and controlling were essential elements of that and other feats, many of them long term. The ancient Egyptian Pharaohs had long-term planners and advisors, as did their contemporaries in China. China perfected military organization based on line and staff principles and used these same principles in the early Chinese dynasties. Confucius wrote parables that offered practical suggestions for public administration. In the Old Testament, Moses led a group of Jewish slaves out of Egypt and then organized them into a nation. Exodus, Chapter 18, describes how Moses â€Å"chose able men out of all Israel and made them heads over the people, and differentiated between rulers of thousands, rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties and rulers of tens. A system of judges also evolved, with only the hard cases coming to Moses. The city-states of Greece were commonwealths, with councils, courts, administrative officials, and boards of generals. Socrates talked about management as a skill separate from technical knowledge and experience. Plato wrote about specialization and proposed notions of a healthy republic. The Roman Empire is thought by many to have been so successful because of the Romans’ great ability to organize the military and conquer new lands. Those sent to govern the far-flung parts of the empire were effective administrators and were able to maintain relationships with leaders from other provinces and across the empire as a whole. There are numerous other ancient leaders who were skillful organizers, at least as indicated by their accomplishments, such as Hannibal, who shepherded an army across the Alps, and the first emperor of China, who built the Great Wall. Many of the practices employed today in leading, managing, and administering modern organizations have their origins in antiquity. Many concepts of authority developed in a religious context. One example is the Roman Catholic Church with its efficient formal organization and management techniques. The chain of command or path of authority, including the concept of specialization, was a most important contribution to management theory. Machiavelli also wrote about authority, stressing that it comes from the consent of the masses. However, the ideas Machiavelli expressed in The Prince are more often viewed as mainly concerned with leadership and communication. Much management theory has military origins, probably because efficiency and effectiveness are essential for success in warfare. The concepts of unity of command, line of command, staff advisors, and division of work all can be traced back at least to Alexander the Great, or even earlier, to Lao Tzu. The Industrial Revolution created a need for new thinking and the refinement of old thinking. Time and motion studies intensified the division of work, as did centralized production and research and development. Modern management theory prevails afterwards. The preceding historical review indicates that thinking about management and leadership is in large part situational and that practices evolved to deal with new situations that arose. It also indicates that yesterday’s principles and theories are surprisingly contemporary and surprisingly sophisticated. Some overlap occurs, of course, and some gaps. Today’s theorists have attempted to fill in the gaps and adapt the theories to current situations. Yet, like in other areas of thought, not much is of recent origin in the field of management theory. The Evolution of Management Changes in management practices occur as managers, theorists, researchers, and consultants seek new ways to increase organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The driving force behind the evolution of management theory is the search for better ways to utilize organizational resources. Advances in management theory typically occur as managers and researchers find better ways to perform the principal management tasks: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling human and other organizational resources. In this paper, we will try to examine how management theory concerning appropriate management practices has evolved in modern times, and look at the central concerns that have guided its development. First, we look into the so-called classical management theories that emerged around the turn of the twentieth century. These include scientific management, which focuses on matching people and tasks to maximize efficiency; and administrative management, which focuses on identifying the principles that will lead to the creation of the most efficient system of organization and management. Next, we consider behavioral management theories, developed both before and after the Second World War, which focus on how managers should lead and control their workforces to increase performance. Then we discuss management science theory, which developed during the Second World War and which has become increasingly important as researchers have developed rigorous analytical and quantitative techniques to help managers measure and control organizational performance. Finally, we discuss business in the 1960s and 1970s and focus on the theories that were developed to help explain how the external environment affects the way organizations and managers operate. At the end of this paper, one will understand the ways in which management theory has evolved over time. One will also understand how economic, political, and cultural forces have affected the development of these theories and the ways in which managers and their organizations behave. Figure 1. 1 summarizes the chronology of the management theories that are discussed in this paper. Scientific Management Theory The evolution of modern management began in the closing decades of the nineteenth century, after the industrial revolution had swept through Europe, Canada, and the United States. In the new economic climate, managers of all types of organizations—political, educational, and economic—were increasingly trying to find better ways to satisfy customers’ needs. Many major economic, technical, and cultural changes were taking place at this time. The introduction of steam power and the development of sophisticated machinery and equipment changed the way in which goods were produced, particularly in the weaving and clothing industries. Small workshops run by skilled workers who produced hand-manufactured products (a system called crafts production) were being replaced by large factories in which sophisticated machines controlled by hundreds or even thousands of unskilled or semiskilled workers made products. Owners and managers of the new factories found themselves unprepared for the challenges accompanying the change from small-scale crafts production to large-scale mechanized manufacturing. Many of the managers and supervisors had only a technical orientation, and were unprepared for the social problems that occur when people work together in large groups (as in a factory or shop system). Managers began to search for new techniques to manage their organizations’ resources, and soon they began to focus on ways to increase the efficiency of the worker–task mix. Job specialization and division of labor The famous economist Adam Smith was one of the first to look at the effects of different manufacturing systems. 7 He compared the relative performance of two different manufacturing methods. The first was similar to crafts-style production, in which each worker was responsible for all of the 18 tasks involved in producing a pin. The other had each worker performing only 1 or a few of the 18 tasks that go into making a completed pin. Smith found that factories in which workers specialized in only 1 or a few tasks had greater performance than factories in which each worker performed all 18 pin-making tasks. In fact, Smith found that 10 workers specializing in a particular task could, between them, make 48 000 pins a day, whereas those workers who performed all the tasks could make only a few thousand at most. Smith reasoned that this difference in performance was due to the fact that the workers who specialized became much more skilled at their specific tasks, and, as a group, were thus able to produce a product faster than the group of workers who each had to perform many tasks. Smith concluded that increasing the level of job specialization— the process by which a division of labour occurs as different workers specialize in different tasks over time—increases efficiency and leads to higher organizational performance. Based on Adam Smith’s observations, early management practitioners and theorists focused on how managers should organize and control the work process to maximize the advantages of job specialization and the division of labour. F. W. Taylor and Scientific Management Frederick W. Taylor (1856–1915) is best known for defining the techniques of scientific management, the systematic study of relationships between people and tasks for the purpose of redesigning the work process to increase efficiency. Taylor believed that if the amount of time and effort that each worker expended to produce a unit of output (a finished good or service) could be reduced by increasing specialization and the division of labour, then the production process would become more efficient. Taylor believed that the way to create the most efficient division of labour could best be determined by means of scientific management techniques, rather than intuitive or informal rule-of-thumb knowledge. This decision ultimately resulted in problems. For example, some managers using scientific management obtained increases in performance, but rather than sharing performance gains with workers through bonuses as Taylor had advocated, they simply increased the amount of work that each worker was expected to do. Many workers experiencing the reorganized work system found that as their performance increased, managers required them to do more work for the same pay. Workers also learned that increases in performance often meant fewer jobs and a greater threat of layoffs, because fewer workers were needed. In addition, the specialized, simplified jobs were often monotonous and repetitive, and many workers became dissatisfied with their jobs. Scientific management brought many workers more hardship than gain, and left them with a distrust of managers who did not seem to care about their wellbeing. These dissatisfied workers resisted attempts to use the new scientific management techniques and at times even withheld their job knowledge from managers to protect their jobs and pay. Unable to inspire workers to accept the new scientific management techniques for performing tasks, some organizations increased the mechanization of the work process. For example, one reason for Henry Ford’s introduction of moving conveyor belts in his factory was the realization that when a conveyor belt controls the pace of work (instead of workers setting their own pace), workers can be pushed to perform at higher levels—levels that they may have thought were beyond their reach. Charlie Chaplin captured this aspect of mass production in one of the opening scenes of his famous movie, Modern Times (1936). In the film, Chaplin caricatured a new factory employee fighting to work at the machine imposed pace but losing the battle to the machine. Henry Ford also used the principles of scientific management to identify the tasks that each worker should perform on the production line and thus to determine the most effective way to create a division of labour to suit the needs of a mechanized production system. From a performance perspective, the combination of the two management practices— (1) achieving the right mix of worker–task specialization and (2) linking people and tasks by the speed of the production line—makes sense. It produces the huge savings in cost and huge increases in output that occur in large, organized work settings. For example, in 1908, managers at the Franklin Motor Company redesigned the work process using scientific management principles, and the output of cars increased from 100 cars a month to 45 cars a day; workers’ wages increased by only 90 percent, however. From other perspectives, though, scientific management practices raise many concerns. The definition of the workers’ rights not by the workers themselves but by the owners or managers as a result of the introduction of the new management practices raises an ethical issue, which we examine in this â€Å"Ethics in Action. † Fordism in Practice From 1908 to 1914, through trial and error, Henry Ford’s talented team of production managers pioneered the development of the moving conveyor belt and thus changed manufacturing practices forever. Although the technical aspects of the move to mass production were a dramatic financial success for Ford and for the millions of Americans who could now afford cars, for the workers who actually produced the cars, many human and social problems resulted. With simplification of the work process, workers grew to hate the monotony of the moving conveyor belt. By 1914, Ford’s car plants were experiencing huge employee turnover—often reaching levels as high as 300 or 400 percent per year as workers left because they could not handle the work-induced stress. 15 Henry Ford recognized these problems and made an announcement: From that point on, to motivate his workforce, he would reduce the length of the workday from nine hours to eight hours, and the company would double the basic wage from US$2. 50 to US$5. 00 per day. This was a dramatic increase, similar to an announcement today of an overnight doubling of the minimum wage. Ford became an internationally famous figure, and the word â€Å"Fordism† was coined for his new approach. Ford’s apparent generosity was matched, however, by an intense effort to control the resources—both human and material—with which his empire was built. He employed hundreds of inspectors to check up on employees, both inside and outside his factories. In the factory, supervision was close and confining. Employees were not allowed to leave their places at the production line, and they were not permitted to talk to one another. Their job was to concentrate fully on the task at hand. Few employees could adapt to this system, and they developed ways of talking out of the sides of their mouths, like ventriloquists, and invented a form of speech that became known as the â€Å"Ford Lisp. † Ford’s obsession with control brought him into greater and greater conflict with managers, who were often fired when they disagreed with him. As a result, many talented people left Ford to join his growing rivals. Outside the workplace, Ford went so far as to establish what he called the â€Å"Sociological Department† to check up on how his employees lived and the ways in which they spent their time. Inspectors from this department visited the homes of employees and investigated their habits and problems. Employees who exhibited behaviours contrary to Ford’s standards (for instance, if they drank too much or were always in debt) were likely to be fired. Clearly, Ford’s effort to control his employees led him and his managers to behave in ways that today would be considered unacceptable and unethical, and in the long run would impair an organization’s ability to prosper. Despite the problems of worker turnover, absenteeism, and discontent at Ford Motor Company, managers of the other car companies watched Ford reap huge gains in efficiency from the application of the new management principles. They believed that their companies would have to imitate Ford if they were to survive. They followed Taylor and used many of his followers as consultants to teach them how to adopt the techniques of scientific management. In addition, Taylor elaborated his principles in several books, including Shop Management (1903) and The detail how to apply the principles of scientific management to reorganize the work system. Taylor’s work has had an enduring effect on the management of production systems. Managers in every organization, whether it produces goods or services, now carefully analyze the basic tasks that must be performed and try to devise the work systems that will allow their organizations to operate most efficiently. The Gilbreths Two prominent followers of Taylor were Frank Gilbreth (1868–1924) and Lillian Gilbreth (1878–1972), who refined Taylor’s analysis of work movements and made many contributions to time-and-motion study. Their aims were to (1) break up into each of its component actions and analyze every individual action necessary to perform a particular task, (2) find better ways to perform each component action, and (3) reorganize each of the component actions so that the action as a whole could be performed more efficiently—at less cost of time and effort. The Gilbreths often filmed a worker performing a particular task and then separated the task actions, frame by frame, into their component movements. Their goal was to maximize the efficiency with which each individual task was performed so that gains across tasks would add up to enormous savings of time and effort. Their attempts to develop improved management principles were captured—at times quite humorously—in the movie Cheaper by the Dozen, which depicts how the Gilbreths (with their 12 children) tried to live their own lives according to these efficiency principles and apply them to daily actions such as shaving, cooking, and even raising a family. Eventually, the Gilbreths became increasingly interested in the study of fatigue. They studied how the physical characteristics of the workplace contribute to job stress that often leads to fatigue and thus poor performance. They isolated factors— such as lighting, heating, the colour of walls, and the design of tools and machines—that result in worker fatigue. Their pioneering studies paved the way for new advances in management theory. In workshops and factories, the work of the Gilbreths, Taylor, and many others had a major effect on the practice of management. In comparison with the old crafts system, jobs in the new system were more repetitive, boring, and monotonous as a result of the application of scientific management principles, and workers became increasingly dissatisfied. Frequently, the management of work settings became a game between workers and managers: Managers tried to initiate work practices to increase performance, and workers tried to hide the true potential efficiency of the work setting in order to protect their own well-being. Administrative management theory Side by side with scientific managers studying the person–task mix to increase efficiency, other researchers were focusing on administrative management, the study of how to create an organizational structure that leads to high efficiency and effectiveness. Organizational structure is the system of task and authority relationships that control how employees use resources to achieve the organization’s goals. Two of the most influential views regarding the creation of efficient systems of organizational administration were developed in Europe. Max Weber, a German professor of sociology, developed one theory. Henri Fayol, the French manager who developed a model of management introduced earlier, developed the other. The Theory of Bureaucracy Max Weber (1864–1920) wrote at the turn of the twentieth century, when Germany was undergoing its industrial revolution. To help Germany manage its growing industrial enterprises at a time when it was striving to become a world power, Weber developed the principles of bureaucracy—a formal system of organization and administration designed to ensure efficiency and effectiveness. A bureaucratic system of administration is based on five principles (summarized in Figure 1. 2). †¢ Principle 1: In a bureaucracy, a manager’s formal authority derives from the position he or she holds in the organization. Authority is the power to hold people accountable for their actions and to make decisions concerning the use of organizational resources. Authority gives managers the right to direct and control their subordinates’ behaviour to achieve organizational goals. In a bureaucratic system of administration, obedience is owed to a manager, not because of any personal qualities that he or she might possess— such as personality, wealth, or social status—but because the manager occupies a position that is associated with a certain level of authority and responsibility. †¢ Principle 2: In a bureaucracy, people should occupy positions because of their performance, not because of their social standing or personal contacts. This principle was not always followed in Weber’s time and is often ignored today. Some organizations and industries are still affected by social networks in which personal contacts and relations, not job-related skills, influence hiring and promotional decisions. †¢ Principle 3: The extent of each position’s formal authority and task responsibilities, and its relationship to other positions in an organization, should be clearly specified. When the tasks and authority associated with various positions in the organization are clearly specified, managers and workers know what is expected of them and what to expect from each other. Moreover, an organization can hold all its employees strictly accountable for their actions when each person is completely familiar with his or her responsibilities. †¢ Principle 4: So that authority can be exercised effectively in an organization, positions should be arranged hierarchically, so employees know whom to report to and who reports to them. Managers must create an organizational hierarchy of authority that makes it clear who reports to whom and to whom managers and workers should go if conflicts or problems arise. This principle is especially important in the armed forces, CSIS, RCMP, and other organizations that deal with sensitive issues involving possible major repercussions. It is vital that managers at high levels of the hierarchy be able to hold subordinates accountable for their actions. †¢ Principle 5: Managers must create a well-defined system of rules, standard operating procedures, and norms so that they can effectively control behaviour within an organization. Rules are formal written instructions that specify actions to be taken under different circumstances to achieve specific goals (for example, if A happens, do B). Standard operating procedures (SOPs) are specific sets of written instructions about how to perform a certain aspect of a task. A rule might state that at the end of the workday employees are to leave their machines in good order, and a set of SOPs then specifies exactly how they should do so, itemizing which machine parts must be oiled or replaced. Norms are unwritten, informal codes of conduct that prescribe how people should act in particular situations. For example, an organizational norm in a restaurant might be that waiters should help each other if time permits. Rules, SOPs, and norms provide behavioural guidelines that improve the performance of a bureaucratic system because they specify the best ways to accomplish organizational tasks. Companies such as McDonald’s and Wal-Mart have developed extensive rules and procedures to specify the types of behaviours that are required of their employees, such as, â€Å"Always greet the customer with a smile. † Weber believed that organizations that implement all five principles will establish a bureaucratic system that will improve organizational performance. The specification of positions and the use of rules and SOPs to regulate how tasks are performed make it easier for managers to organize and control the work of subordinates. Similarly, fair and equitable selection and promotion systems improve managers’ feelings of security, reduce stress, and encourage organizational members to act ethically and further promote the interests of the organization. If bureaucracies are not managed well, however, many problems can result. Sometimes, managers allow rules and SOPs—â€Å"bureaucratic red tape†Ã¢â‚¬â€to become so cumbersome that decision making becomes slow and inefficient and organizations are unable to change. When managers rely too much on rules to solve problems and not enough on their own skills and judgment, their behaviour becomes inflexible. A key challenge for managers is to use bureaucratic principles to benefit, rather than harm, an organization. Fayol’s Principles of Management Working at the same time as Weber but independently of him, Henri Fayol (1841–1925), the CEO of Comambault Mining, identified 14 principles (summarized in Table 2. ) that he believed to be essential to increasing the efficiency of the management process. Some of the principles that Fayol outlined have faded from contemporary management practices, but most have endured. The principles that Fayol and Weber set forth still provide a clear and appropriate set of guidelines that managers can use to create a work setting that makes efficient and effective use of organizational resources. These principles remain the bedrock of modern management theory; recent researchers have refined or developed them to suit modern conditions. For example, Weber’s and Fayol’s concerns for equity and for establishing appropriate links between performance and reward are central themes in contemporary theories of motivation and leadership. Behavioural Management Theory The behavioural management theorists writing in the first half of the twentieth century all espoused a theme that focused on how managers should personally behave in order to motivate employees and encourage them to perform at high levels and be committed to the achievement of organizational goals. The â€Å"Management Insight† indicates how employees can become demoralized when managers do not treat their employees properly. Management Insight – How to Discourage Employees Catherine Robertson, owner of Vancouver-based Robertson Telecom Inc. , made headlines in February 2001 for her management policies. Robertson is a government contractor whose company operates Enquiry BC, which gives British Columbians toll-free telephone information and referral services about all provincial government programs. Female telephone operators at Robertson Telecom must wear skirts or dresses even though they never come in contact with the public. Not even dress pants are allowed. As Gillian Savage, a former employee, notes, â€Å"This isn’t a suggested thing, it’s an order: No pants. † Brad Roy, another former employee, claims a female Indo-Canadian employee was sent home to change when she arrived at work wearing a Punjabi suit (a long shirt over pants). The no-pants rule is not the only concern of current and former employees. Roy also said, â€Å"I saw some people being reprimanded for going to the washroom. While Robertson denied Roy’s allegation regarding washrooms, she did confirm that company policy included the no-pants rule, that employees were not allowed to bring their purses or other personal items to their desks, and that they were not allowed to drink coffee or bottled water at their desks. The company does not provide garbage cans for the employees. A g roup of current and former employees recently expressed concern with the number of rules Robertson has in place, and claimed that the rules have led to high turnover and poor morale. A current employee claims that many workers do not care whether they give out the right government phone numbers. Robertson said that she knew of no employees who were discontent, and was shocked that the policies had caused distress among employees. She defended the dress code as appropriate business attire. Robertson may have to make some adjustments in her management style. The cabinet minister responsible for Enquiry BC, Catherine MacGregor, ordered an investigation of the contractor after being contacted by The Vancouver Sun about the allegations. She noted that the skirts-only rule for women is not appropriate, and that, â€Å"All of our contractors are expected to fully comply with the Employment Standards Act, Workers Compensation rules and human rights legislation. † Additionally, Mary-Woo Sims, head of the BC Human Rights Commission, said dress codes can’t be based on gender. Thus, an employer can’t tell men they must wear pants (as Robertson does), but tell women they can’t. â€Å"On the face of it, it would appear to be gender discriminatory,† Sims said. The Work of Mary Parker Follett If F. W. Taylor is considered to be the father of management thought, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933) serves as its mother. 28 Much of her writing about management and about the way managers should behave toward workers was a response to her concern that Taylor was ignoring the human side of the organization. She pointed out that management often overlooks the multitude of ways in which employees can contribute to the organization when managers allow them to participate and exercise initiative in their everyday work lives. Taylor, for example, relied on time-and-motion experts to analyze workers’ jobs for them. Follett, in contrast, argued that because workers know the most about their jobs, they should be involved in job analysis and managers should allow them to participate in the work development process. Follett proposed that, â€Å"Authority should go with knowledge †¦ whether it is up the line or down. † In other words, if workers have the relevant knowledge, then workers, rather than managers, should be in control of the work process itself, and managers should behave as coaches and facilitators—not as monitors and supervisors. In making this statement, Follett anticipated the current interest in self-managed teams and empowerment. She also recognized the importance of having managers in different departments communicate directly with each other to speed decision making. She advocated what she called â€Å"cross-functioning†: members of different departments working together in cross-departmental teams to accomplish projects—an approach that is increasingly utilized today. Fayol also mentioned expertise and knowledge as important sources of managers’ authority, but Follett went further. She proposed that knowledge and expertise, and not managers’ formal authority deriving from their position in the hierarchy, should decide who would lead at any particular moment. She believed, as do many management theorists today, that power is fluid and should flow to the person who can best help the organization achieve its goals. Follett took a horizontal view of power and authority, in contrast to Fayol, who saw the formal line of authority and vertical chain of command as being most essential to effective management. Follett’s behavioural approach to management was very radical for its time. The Hawthorne Studies and Human Relations Probably because of its radical nature, Follett’s work was unappreciated by managers and researchers until quite recently. Instead, researchers continued to follow in the footsteps of Taylor and the Gilbreths. One focus was on how efficiency might be increased through improving various characteristics of the work setting, such as job specialization or the kinds of tools workers used. One series of studies was conducted from 1924 to 1932 at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company. This research, now known as the Hawthorne studies, began as an attempt to investigate how characteristics of the work setting—specifically the level of lighting or illumination—affect worker fatigue and performance. The researchers conducted an experiment in which they systematically measured worker productivity at various levels of illumination. The experiment produced some unexpected results. The researchers found that regardless of whether they raised or lowered the level of illumination, productivity increased. In fact, productivity began to fall only when the level of illumination dropped to the level of moonlight, a level at which presumably workers could no longer see well enough to do their work efficiently. The researchers found these results puzzling and invited a noted Harvard psychologist, Elton Mayo, to help them. Subsequently, it was found that many other factors also influence worker behaviour, and it was not clear what was actually influencing the Hawthorne workers’ behaviour. However, this particular effect— which became known as the Hawthorne effect—seemed to suggest that workers’ attitudes toward their managers affect the level of workers’ performance. In particular, the significant finding was that a manager’s behaviour or leadership approach can affect performance. This finding led many researchers to turn their attention to managerial behaviour and leadership. If supervisors could be trained to behave in ways that would elicit cooperative behaviour from their subordinates, then productivity could be increased. From this view emerged the human relations movement, which advocates that supervisors be behaviourally trained to manage subordinates in ways that elicit their cooperation and increase their productivity. The importance of behavioural or human relations training became even clearer to its supporters after another series of experiments—the bank wiring room experiments. In a study of workers making telephone switching equipment, researchers Elton Mayo and F. J. Roethlisberger discovered that the workers, as a group, had deliberately adopted a norm of output restriction to protect their jobs. Workers who violated this informal production norm were subjected to sanctions by other group members. Those who violated group performance norms and performed above the norm were called â€Å"ratebusters†; those who performed below the norm were called â€Å"chiselers. † The experimenters concluded that both types of workers threatened the group as a whole. Ratebusters threatened group members because they revealed to managers how fast the work could be done. Chiselers were looked down on because they were not doing their share of the work. Work-group members disciplined both ratebusters and chiselers in order to create a pace of work that the workers (not the managers) thought was fair. Thus, a work group’s influence over output can be as great as the supervisors’ influence. Since the work group can influence the behavior of its members, some management theorists argue that supervisors should be trained to behave in ways that gain the goodwill and cooperation of workers so that supervisors, not workers, control the level of work-group performance. One of the main implications of the Hawthorne studies was that the behavior of managers and workers in the work setting is as important in explaining the level of performance as the technical aspects of the task. Managers must understand the workings of the informal organization, the system of behavioural rules and norms that emerge in a group, when they try to manage or change behaviour in organizations. Many studies have found that, as time passes, groups often develop elaborate procedures and norms that bond members together, allowing unified action either to cooperate with management in order to raise performance or to restrict output and thwart the attainment of organizational goals. The Hawthorne studies demonstrated the importance of understanding how the feelings, thoughts, and behaviour of work-group members and managers affect performance. It was becoming increasingly clear to researchers that understanding behaviour in organizations is a complex process that is critical to increasing performance. Indeed, the increasing interest in the area of management known as organizational behaviour, the study of the factors that have an impact on how individuals and groups respond to and act in organizations, dates from these early studies. Theory X and Theory Y Several studies after the Second World War revealed how assumptions about workers’ attitudes and behaviour affect managers’ behaviour. Perhaps the most influential approach was developed by Douglas McGregor. He proposed that two different sets of assumptions about work attitudes and behaviours dominate the way managers think and affect how they behave in organizations. McGregor named these two contrasting sets of assumptions Theory X and Theory Y (see Figure 1. 3). THEORY X According to the assumptions of Theory X, the average worker is lazy, dislikes work, and will try to do as little as possible. Moreover, workers have little ambition and wish to avoid responsibility. Thus, the manager’s task is to counteract workers’ natural tendencies to avoid work. To keep workers’ performance at a high level, the manager must supervise them closely and control their behaviour by means of â€Å"the carrot and stick†Ã¢â‚¬â€rewards and punishments. Managers who accept the assumptions of Theory X design and shape the work setting to maximize their control over workers’ behaviours and minimize workers’ control over the pace of work. These managers believe that workers must be made to do what is necessary for the success of the organization, and they focus on developing rules, SOPs, and a well-defined system of rewards and punishments to control behaviour. They see little point in giving workers autonomy to solve their own problems because they think that the workforce neither expects nor desires cooperation. Theory X managers see their role as to closely monitor workers to ensure that they contribute to the production process and do not threaten product quality. Henry Ford, who closely supervised and managed his workforce, fits McGregor’s description of a manager who holds Theory X assumptions. THEORY Y In contrast, Theory Y assumes that workers are not inherently lazy, do not naturally dislike work, and, if given the opportunity, will do what is good for the organization. According to Theory Y, the characteristics of the work setting determine whether workers consider work to be a source of satisfaction or punishment; and managers do not need to control workers’ behaviour closely in order to make them perform at a high level, because workers will exercise selfcontrol when they are committed to organizational goals. The implication of Theory Y, according to McGregor, is that â€Å"the limits of collaboration in the organizational setting are not limits of human nature but of management’s ingenuity in discovering how to realize the potential represented by its human resources. It is the manager’s task to create a work setting that encourages commitment to organizational goals and provides opportunities for workers to be imaginative and to exercise initiative and self-direction. When managers design the organizational setting to reflect the assumptions about attitudes and behaviour suggested by Theory Y, the characteristics of the o rganization are quite different from those of an organizational setting based on Theory X. Managers who believe that workers are motivated to help the organization reach its goals can decentralize authority and give more control over the job to workers, both as individuals and in groups. In this setting, individuals and groups are still accountable for their activities, but the manager’s role is not to control employees but to provide support and advice, to make sure employees have the resources they need to perform their jobs, and to evaluate them on their ability to help the organization meet its goals. Henri Fayol’s approach to administration more closely reflects the assumptions of Theory Y, rather than Theory X. Management Science Theory This theory focuses on the use of rigorous quantitative techniques to help managers make maximum use of organizational resources to produce goods and services. In essence, management science theory is a contemporary extension of scientific management, which, as developed by Taylor, also took a quantitative approach to measuring the worker–task mix in order to raise efficiency. There are many branches of management science; each of them deals with a specific set of concerns: Quantitative management utilizes mathematical techniques—such as linear and nonlinear programming, modelling, simulation, queuing theory, and chaos theory—to help managers decide, for example, how much inventory to hold at different times of the year, where to locate a new factory, and how best to invest an organization’s financial capital. Resources in the organizational environment include the raw materials and skilled people that an organization requires to produce goods and services, as well as the support of groups including customers who buy these goods and services and provide the organization with financial resources. One way of determining the relative success of an organization is to consider how effective its managers are at obtaining scarce and valuable resources. The importance of studying the environment became clear after the development of open-systems theory and contingency theory during the 1960s. The Open-Systems View One of the most influential views of how an organization is affected by its external environment was developed by Daniel Katz, Robert Kahn, and James Thompson in the 1960s. 38 These theorists viewed the organization as an open system— a system that takes in resources from its external environment and converts or transforms them into goods and services that are then sent back to that environment, where they are bought by customers (see Figure 1. 4). At the input stage, an organization acquires resources such as raw materials, money, and skilled workers to produce goods and services. Once the organization has gathered the necessary resources, conversion begins. At the conversion stage, the organization’s workforce, using appropriate tools, techniques, and machinery, transforms the inputs into outputs of finished goods and services such as cars, hamburgers, or flights to Hawaii. At the output stage, the organization releases finished goods and services to its external environment, where customers purchase and use them to satisfy their needs. The money the organization obtains from the sales of its outputs allows the organization to acquire more resources so that the cycle can begin again. The system just described is said to be â€Å"open† because the organization draws from and interacts with the external environment in order to survive; in other words, the organization is open to its environment. A closed system, in contrast, is a self-contained system that is not affected by changes that occur in its external environment. Organizations that operate as closed ystems, that ignore the external environment and that fail to acquire inputs, are likely to experience entropy, the tendency of a system to lose its ability to control itself and thus to dissolve and disintegrate. Management theorists can model the activities of most organizations by using the open-systems view. Manufacturing companies like Ford and General Electric, for example, buy inputs such as component parts, skilled and semiskilled labour, and robots and computer-controlled manufacturing equipment; then, at the conversion stage, they use their manufacturing skills to assemble inputs into outputs of cars and computers. As we discuss in later chapters, competition between organizations for resources is one of several major challenges to managing the organizational environment. Researchers using the open-systems view are also interested in how the various parts of a system work together to promote efficiency and effectiveness. Systems theorists like to argue that â€Å"the parts are more than the sum of the whole†; they mean that an organization performs at a higher level when its departments work together rather than separately. Synergy, the performance gains that result when individuals and departments coordinate their actions, is possible only in an organized system. The recent interest in using teams comprising people from different departments reflects systems theorists’ interest in designing organizational systems to create synergy and thus increase efficiency and effectiveness.